Abstract:
Animal skeletal morphology can be very informative as it can offer insights into an animal’s ecology, functional and locomotor capabilities, as well as phylogenetic relationships. Since the emergence of domestication, skeletal morphology has additionally reflected human influence and adaptation to domestication-related processes. Disentangling these overlapping factors, however, remains challenging. This thesis employs three-dimensional (3D) methods to examine morphological variation across different scales; to assess long-term adaptations in external morphology and reconstruction of lifetime activity associated with human management. Specifically, the study applies 3D geometric morphometrics (3D GMM) and VERA (Validated Entheses-based Reconstruction of Activity) in three separate case studies. The first focuses on equids, using a modern reference sample to assess environmental, behavioural, and phylogenetic influences on morphology. These findings are then used to interpret such adaptations in Early Pleistocene fossil horses from northern Greece. The second case study reconstructs activity related to human management, such as captivity and labour in reindeer, a species that has undergone limited morphological change related to domestication. Using a modern sample of zoo, racing, and free-ranging reindeer, this study evaluates VERA as a method for identifying domestication practices in the archaeological record using muscle attachment sites. The third case study applies VERA to sheep, a species with extensive morphological variability due to domestication. It employs a variety of modern sheep, including both captive and free-ranging breeds and types, alongside archaeological specimens from Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in Turkey and Syria associated with hunting or animal management contexts. The study examines how activity can be reconstructed and to what extent environmental and domestication-related morphological differences affect entheseal morphology. Together, the three case studies demonstrate that morphological variation reflects multiple interacting factors. They also show that integrating approaches such as 3D GMM and activity reconstruction methods like VERA can provide insights into both long-term adaptation and human influence. More broadly, the results highlight the potential of 3D methods to address morphological complexity and underscore their growing importance in archaeozoological research.