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This thesis presents the first comprehensive and large-scale archaeobotanical study of Old Dongola, a major urban centre in Northern Sudan, elaborating on the agricultural dynamics and subsistence strategies of post-medieval Nubia. Despite the general scarcity of archaeobotanical data from the region, systematic flotation and analysis of 53 samples have yielded a remarkable assemblage of over 60,375 seed remains, representing 66 plant taxa. These findings offer new insights into plant use, dietary practices, environmental adaptation, and the cultural transformations that shaped daily life in the Middle Nile Valley between the 14th and 18th centuries CE.
The results reveal a complex and adaptive subsistence system that integrated both cultivated and wild resources. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) was the dominant staple across all phases, while bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)—important in earlier periods—declined during the Kingdom of Dongola (Funj) era (16th-18th c.). These diachronic trends reflect broader transformations in crop selection driven by environmental pressures, including increasing aridity, as well as evolving cultural and economic conditions. The study also highlights shifting cultivation knowledge, with pulses, condiments, and crops like safflower and coriander appearing intermittently, suggesting a gradual narrowing of crop diversity over time.
Beyond food crops, this thesis demonstrates the multifunctionality of plants in Dongolese society. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) was likely used for dye or oil, cotton (Gossypium sp.) for textiles, colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis L.) for tar production, and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.)—identified through seed remains in elite domestic contexts—as a commodity of luxurious pleasure. These findings extend the scope of archaeobotanical inquiry into the realms of sensory, medicinal, and ritual plant use, providing rare insights into social behaviour, healing practices, and the cultural negotiation of Islamic values in early modern Nubia.
Notably, wild and weedy species comprised 79% of the assemblage, indicating their importance in everyday subsistence. Plants such as Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa sp., and Glinus lotoides were likely used as famine food, fodder, fuel, and medicine, reflecting ecological adaptations and the resilience strategies of Nubian communities living in semi-arid environments. The identification of previously undocumented taxa, such as African peach (Nauclea latifolia) and false daisy (Eclipta prostrata), further expands our understanding of local plant use and resource diversity.
The study also explores cultural continuity and transformation in plant use through a diachronic lens, tracing patterns of persistence, adaptation, and innovation in agricultural practices over centuries of political, social, and environmental changes. The presence of imported and newly introduced crops—such as tobacco, henbane (Hyoscyamus muticus), and eggplant (Solanum melongena L.)—signals participation of Old Dongola in expanding trade networks and its position as a hub of cultural exchange. These changes, set against the backdrop of Islamization and shifting political rule, highlights the dynamic interplay between environment, economy, and identity in post-medieval history of Nubia.
In synthesising archaeological, historical, and ethnobotanical data, this thesis contributes significantly to the growing body of scholarship that positions archaeobotany as a powerful lens for exploring past lifeways in Africa. It fills a critical gap in the archaeobotanical record of the Middle Nile Valley and demonstrates the potential of plant remains to reveal not only what people ate, but how they lived, adapted, and engaged with their environment. As archaeological science continues to develop in Sudan, the findings from Old Dongola provide a foundational reference point for future comparative research, regional surveys, and cross-disciplinary investigations into the historical ecology of Nubia. |
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