Abstract:
Aminopolyphosphonates (APPs) are widely used chelating agents in industrial and household applications, with increasing environmental release raising concerns due to their reported recalcitrance and potential transformation into controversial compounds like aminomethylphosphonate (AMPA). Despite their widespread use, significant knowledge gaps exist regarding the environmental fate and transformation pathways of APPs, particularly in the presence of common environmental constituents like manganese oxides. The complex surface processes involved in APP transformations and the lack of comprehensive analytical methods for simultaneous quantification of APPs and their transformation products have hindered a full understanding of their environmental impact. This thesis aims to address these knowledge gaps by providing insights into the transformation products and mechanisms of manganese-driven APP transformation, and in turn their potential environmental fate and implications, while also addressing the analytical challenges associated with these investigations.
The first part of this work investigated the mechanism of iminodi(methylene phosphonate) (IDMP) oxidation by manganese dioxide (MnO2). IDMP is a major transformation product of numerous commercially used APPs and a precursor for AMPA. The research successfully determined the transformation pathways and surface processes involved in IDMP oxidation by MnO2. Through batch experiments at pH 6, part 1 revealed AMPA and phosphate as the main transformation products, with a phosphorus mass balance of 80-92%. The proposed mechanism involves initial C-P bond cleavage, formation of N-formyl-AMPA as a stable intermediate, followed by C-N bond cleavage leading to AMPA formation. Notably, part one identified the formation of IDMP-Mn2+ surface bridging complexes as MnO2 reduction progressed, resulting in the passivation of the mineral surface for IDMP oxidation. Compound-specific stable carbon isotope analysis (carbon CSIA) further supported this hypothesis, indicating that either sorption of IDMP to the mineral surface or electron transfer from IDMP to MnIV could be the rate-limiting step, depending on the Mn2+ surface concentration. This research provided evidence for the potential contribution of abiotic oxidative transformation of APPs by MnO2 to elevated AMPA concentrations in the environment.
The second part of this study addressed the analytical challenges in quantifying APPs and their transformation products. Recognizing the need for a green, low-cost approach for simultaneous quantification in laboratory experiments, a novel analytical method using ion chromatography (IC) coupled to integrated pulsed amperometric detection (IPAD) was developed. This method successfully quantified six A(P)Ps, including AMPA, glyphosate, IDMP, aminotris(methylene phosphonate) (ATMP), ethylenediamine tetra(methylene phosphonate) (EDTMP), and diethylenetriamine penta(methylene phosphonate) (DTPMP), within a 35-minute runtime. The method detection limits ranged from 0.014 μM for AMPA to 0.14 μM for DTPMP. A key advantage of this approach is its environmental friendliness, eliminating the need for derivatization agents and organic solvents while employing a low-energy detector. Although the detector's inherent non-specific nature presents some limitations, the method offers a sustainable alternative to existing techniques, facilitating more comprehensive studies of APP transformations in controlled laboratory settings.
The third part, by combining insights and developments from part one and two, investigated the manganese-driven oxidation of DTPMP, a widely used complexing agent in household and industrial applications. DTPMP transformation in the presence of MnO2 (with and without dissolved O2) and in the presence of Mn2+ and O2 in buffered ultra-pure water (pH 6) and in sterile-filtered wastewater (pH 8) was examined. A groundbreaking discovery was made, demonstrating that glyphosate, a broad-spectrum herbicide, is a stable transformation product during this process. Maximum glyphosate yields ranged from 0.03 to 0.42 mol-%, varying with reaction conditions. Importantly, both glyphosate and AMPA concentrations were found to be stable well beyond complete DTPMP transformation, even in the wastewater matrix.
The widespread occurrence of manganese in both natural environments and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) underscores the potential significance of manganese-mediated DTPMP transformation and subsequent glyphosate formation under environmentally relevant conditions. These results lend support to recent hypotheses suggesting that municipal wastewaters could be a previously unrecognized source of glyphosate in European surface waters, with APPs as potential precursors, highlighting manganese as a potential key factor. Although additional applied research is necessary to definitively establish the role of manganese in glyphosate formation within technical and natural systems, this study challenges the traditional understanding of herbicide application as the single source for glyphosate concentrations in the environment. The results of this study suggest that the pathways of glyphosate introduction into ecosystems may be more complex and diverse than previously thought.
Collectively, this work significantly advances our understanding of APP transformation, provides new analytical tools for their study, and reveals an unexpected pathway for the formation of the controversially discussed contaminant glyphosate. Polyphosphonates, including APPs, are generally described as chemically stable compounds due to their stable C-P bonds. The results
of this study together with recently published literature on APP transformation and behavior in WWTPs strongly suggest revising those assumptions. In this context, the widely accepted assumption that APPs are primarily removed from WWTPs through sorption processes should be re-evaluated and subjected to further investigation. This work provides evidence suggesting that APPs may undergo significant transformation within wastewater treatment systems and/or the environment. Those findings might have important implications for environmental risk assessment, monitoring, and the regulation of APPs and their transformation products.